Putt's Watts: 2012

Tuesday, 13 November 2012

Netholi peera vattichathu

ആവശ്യമുള്ള സാധനങ്ങള്‍ :-

നെത്തോലി ( ചിലയിടത്ത് കൊഴുവ എന്ന് പറയും),

പുളിഞ്ചിക്ക ( ഇലിമ്പിക്ക) (പുളിഞ്ചിക്കക്ക് പകരം പച്ച മാങ്ങയോ വടക്കന്‍ പുളിയോ ചേര്‍ക്കാം),

തേങ്ങ തിരുകിയത്,

ചുമന്നുള്ളി,

ഇഞ്ചി,

പച്ചമുളക്,

മുളകുപൊടി,

മഞ്ഞള്‍ പൊടി,

ഉപ്പ്

പാചക രീതി:-

നെത്തോലി തലയും വാലും നുള്ളി ഉപ്പിട്ട് തേച്ചു കഴുകി വയ്ക്കുക. പച്ചമുളകും ഇഞ്ചിയും, ചുമന്നുള്ളിയും ചതച്ചത് ഒരു മണ്‍ ചട്ടിയില്‍ ഇടുക. ഇതില്‍ തേങ്ങ മുളകുപൊടിയും മഞ്ഞള്‍പ്പൊടിയും ചേര്‍ത്ത് ചതച്ചത് ഇട്ടു നല്ലപോലെ ഞരടുക. ഇതിനു മുകളില്‍ പുളിഞ്ചിക്ക അരിഞ്ഞതും നെത്തോലി വൃത്തി ആക്കിയതും ഇട്ടു പാകത്തിന് ഉപ്പും ചേര്‍ത്ത് കുറച്ചു വെള്ളവും ചേര്‍ത്ത് കലക്കി നല്ലത് പോലെ വറ്റിച്ചെടുക്കുക. കറിവേപ്പില ചേര്‍ത്ത് ഇറക്കി വയ്ക്കാം. നെത്തോലി പീര വറ്റിച്ചത് റെഡി.

WORLD DIABETES DAY - NOVEMBER 14

World Diabetes Day is the primary global awareness campaign of the diabetes mellitus world and is held on November 14 of each year. It was introduced in 1991 by the International Diabetes Federation and the World Health Organization in response to the alarming rise of diabetes around the world. World Diabetes Day is a campaign that features a new theme chosen by the International Diabetes Federation each year to address issues facing the global diabetes community. While the campaigns last the whole year, the day itself marks the birthday of Frederick Banting who, along with Charles Best, first conceived the idea which led to the discovery of insulin in 1922.
Each year, World Diabetes Day is centred on a theme related to diabetes. Topics covered have included diabetes and human rights, diabetes and lifestyle, diabetes and obesity, diabetes in the disadvantaged and the vulnerable, diabetes in children and adolescents and talking about Diabetes

For 2009–2013, the theme is Diabetes Education and Prevention.

World Diabetes Day, on the 14th November every year, has grown from humble beginnings to become a globally-celebrated event to increase awareness about diabetes.

Comprising hundreds of campaigns, activities, screenings, lecture, meetings and more, World Diabetes Day is proving internationally effective in spreading the message about diabetes.

World Diabetes Day 2012:-

The campaign slogan for 2012 is ‘Diabetes: protect our future’ and focuses on supporting children with type 1 diabetes and preventing our current generation of children from developing type 2 diabetes.

This year World Diabetes Day coincides with the beginning of Diwali and as a result the IDF has chosen India as a focus for 2012’s celebrations and has re-named Diwali in 2012 as Blue Diwali.

Who introduced World Diabetes Day?

World Diabetes Day was jointly introduced by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the International Diabetes Federation (IDF). The global diabetes awareness campaign was introduced amidst concern over an escalating diabetes epidemic.

Why is November 14th World Diabetes Day?

November 14th is a significant date in the diabetes calendar because it marks the birthday of the man who co-discovered insulin, Frederick Banting. Banting discovered insulin in 1922, alongside Charles Best. World Diabetes Day is internationally recognised and is now an official United Nations Day.

World Diabetes Day logo:-

The logo of World Diabetes Day is a blue circle, and this is recognised by hundreds of thousands of people with diabetes throughout the world. World Diabetes Day (whereas Diabetes Week is solely a UK-wide event) is a truly international event, and having a distinctive logo is an essential part of spreading the message about diabetes to as wide audience as possible.

The mission of the International Diabetes Federation is to promote diabetes care, prevention and a cure worldwide. IDF's strategic goals are to:

Drive change at all levels, from local to global, to prevent diabetes and increase access to essential medicines.
Develop and encourage best practice in diabetes policy, management and education.
Advance diabetes treatment, prevention and cure through scientific research.
Advance and protect the rights of people with diabetes, and combat discrimination.

DIABETES

Diabetes is usually a lifelong (chronic) disease in which there are high levels of sugar in the blood.

Causes, incidence, and risk factors:-

Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas to control blood sugar. Diabetes can be caused by too little insulin, resistance to insulin, or both.

To understand diabetes, it is important to first understand the normal process by which food is broken down and used by the body for energy. Several things happen when food is digested:

A sugar called glucose enters the bloodstream. Glucose is a source of fuel for the body.
An organ called the pancreas makes insulin. The role of insulin is to move glucose from the bloodstream into muscle, fat, and liver cells, where it can be used as fuel.

People with diabetes have high blood sugar because their body cannot move sugar into fat, liver, and muscle cells to be stored for energy. This is because either:

Their pancreas does not make enough insulin
Their cells do not respond to insulin normally
Both of the above

There are two major types of diabetes. The causes and risk factors are different for each type:

Type 1 diabetes can occur at any age, but it is most often diagnosed in children, teens, or young adults. In this disease, the body makes little or no insulin. Daily injections of insulin are needed. The exact cause is unknown.
Type 2 diabetes makes up most diabetes cases. It most often occurs in adulthood. However, because of high obesity rates, teens and young adults are now being diagnosed with it. Many people with type 2 diabetes do not know they have it.
Gestational diabetes is high blood sugar that develops at any time during pregnancy in a woman who does not have diabetes.

Diabetes affects more than 20 million Americans. Over 40 million Americans have pre-diabetes (which often comes before type 2 diabetes).

Symptoms:-

High blood sugar levels can cause several symptoms, including:

Blurry vision
Excess thirst
Fatigue
Hunger
Urinating often
Weight loss

Because type 2 diabetes develops slowly, some people with high blood sugar have no symptoms.

Symptoms of type 1 diabetes develop over a short period of time. People may be very sick by the time they are diagnosed.

After many years, diabetes can lead to other serious problems:

You could have eye problems, including trouble seeing (especially at night) and light sensitivity. You could become blind.
Your feet and skin can get painful sores and infections. Sometimes, your foot or leg may need to be removed.
Nerves in the body can become damaged, causing pain, tingling, and a loss of feeling.
Because of nerve damage, you could have problems digesting the food you eat. This can cause trouble going to the bathroom. Nerve damage can also make it harder for men to have an erection.

Signs and tests:-

A urine analysis may show high blood sugar. However, a urine test alone does not diagnose diabetes.

Your health care provider may suspect that you have diabetes if your blood sugar level is higher than 200 mg/dL. To confirm the diagnosis, one or more of the following tests must be done.

Blood tests:

Fasting blood glucose level -- diabetes is diagnosed if it is higher than 126 mg/dL twice. Levels between 100 and 126 mg/dL are called impaired fasting glucose or pre-diabetes. These levels are risk factors for type 2 diabetes.

Hemoglobin A1c test --

Normal: Less than 5.7%

Pre-diabetes: 5.7% - 6.4%

Diabetes: 6.5% or higher

Oral glucose tolerance test -- diabetes is diagnosed if glucose level is higher than 200 mg/dL after 2 hours of drinking a glucose drink. (This test is used more often for type 2 diabetes.)

Screening for type 2 diabetes in people who have no symptoms is recommended for:

Overweight children who have other risk factors for diabetes, starting at age 10 and repeated every 2 years

Overweight adults (BMI greater than 25) who have other risk factors

Adults over age 45, repeated every 3 years

Treatment:-

Early on in type 2 diabetes, you may be able to reverse the disease with lifestyle changes. Also, some cases of type 2 diabetes can be cured with weight-loss surgery.

There is no cure for type 1 diabetes.

Treatming both type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes involves medicines, diet, and exercise to control blood sugar levels and prevent symptoms and problems.

Getting better control over your blood sugar, cholesterol, and blood pressure levels helps reduce the risk of kidney disease, eye disease, nervous system disease, heart attack, and stroke.

To prevent diabetes complications, visit your health care provider at least two to four times a year. Talk about any problems you are having.

Prevention:-

Keeping an ideal body weight and an active lifestyle may prevent type 2 diabetes.

There is no way yet to prevent type 1 diabetes.

Gestational diabetes

Gestational diabetes is high blood sugar (diabetes) that starts or is first diagnosed during pregnancy.

Causes, incidence, and risk factors:-

Pregnancy hormones can block insulin from doing its job. When this happens, glucose levels may increase in a pregnant woman's blood.

You are at greater risk for gestational diabetes if you:

Are older than 25 when you are pregnant
Have a family history of diabetes
Gave birth to a baby that weighed more than 9 pounds or had a birth defect
Have high blood pressure
Have too much amniotic fluid
Have had an unexplained miscarriage or stillbirth
Were overweight before your pregnancy

Symptoms:-

Usually there are no symptoms, or the symptoms are mild and not life threatening to the pregnant woman. The blood sugar (glucose) level usually returns to normal after delivery.

Symptoms may include:

Blurred vision
Fatigue
Frequent infections, including those of the bladder, vagina, and skin
Increased thirst
Increased urination
Nausea and vomiting
Weight loss despite increased appetite

Signs and tests:-

Gestational diabetes usually starts halfway through the pregnancy. All pregnant women should receive an oral glucose tolerance test between the 24th and 28th week of pregnancy to screen for the condition. Women who have risk factors for gestational diabetes may have this test earlier in the pregnancy.
Once you are diagnosed with gestational diabetes, you can see how well you are doing by testing your glucose level at home. The most common way involves pricking your finger and putting a drop of your blood on a machine that will give you a glucose reading.

Treatment:-

The goals of treatment are to keep blood sugar (glucose) levels within normal limits during the pregnancy, and to make sure that the growing baby is healthy.

WATCHING YOUR BABY:-

Your health care provider should closely check both you and your baby throughout the pregnancy. Fetal monitoring will check the size and health of the fetus.
A nonstress test is a very simple, painless test for you and your baby. A machine that hears and displays your baby's heartbeat (electronic fetal monitor) is placed on your abdomen.Your health care provider can compare the pattern of your baby's heartbeat to movements and find out whether the baby is doing well.

DIET AND EXERCISE:-

The best way to improve your diet is by eating a variety of healthy foods. You should learn how to read food labels, and check them when making food decisions. Talk to your doctor or dietitian if you are a vegetarian or on some other special diet.

In general, when you have gestational diabetes your diet should:

Be moderate in fat and protein
Provide your carbohydrates through foods that include fruits, vegetables, and complex carbohydrates (such as bread, cereal, pasta, and rice)
Be low in foods that contain a lot of sugar, such as soft drinks, fruit juices, and pastries

If managing your diet does not control blood sugar (glucose) levels, you may be prescribed diabetes medicine by mouth or insulin therapy. Most women who develop gestational diabetes will not need diabetes medicines or insulin, but some will.

Expectations (prognosis):-

Most women with gestational diabetes are able to control their blood sugar and avoid harm to themselves or their baby. Pregnant women with gestational diabetes tend to have larger babies at birth. This can increase the chance of problems at the time of delivery, including:

Birth injury (trauma) because of the baby's large size
Delivery by c-section
Your baby is more likely to have periods of low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) during the first few days of life.
Mothers with gestational diabetes have an increased risk for high blood pressure during pregnancy.
There is a slightly increased risk of the baby dying when the mother has untreated gestational diabetes. Controlling blood sugar levels reduces this risk.

High blood sugar (glucose) levels often go back to normal after delivery. However, women with gestational diabetes should be watched closely after giving birth and at regular doctor's appointments to screen for signs of diabetes. Many women with gestational diabetes develop diabetes within 5 - 10 years after delivery.
Call your health care provider if you are pregnant and you have symptoms of diabetes.

Prevention:-

Beginning prenatal care early and having regular prenatal visits helps improve your health and the health of your baby. Having prenatal screening at 24 - 28 weeks into the pregnancy will help detect gestational diabetes early.
If you are overweight, decreasing your body mass index (BMI) to a normal range before you get pregnant will decrease your risk of developing gestational diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes is a lifelong (chronic) disease in which there are high levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood.

Causes, incidence, and risk factors:-

Type 1 diabetes can occur at any age. However, it is most often diagnosed in children, adolescents, or young adults.
Insulin is a hormone produced by special cells, called beta cells, in the pancreas. The pancreas is found behind your stomach. Insulin is needed to move blood sugar (glucose) into cells, where it is stored and later used for energy. In type 1 diabetes, beta cells produce little or no insulin.
Without enough insulin, glucose builds up in the bloodstream instead of going into the cells. The body is unable to use this glucose for energy. This leads to the symptoms of type 1 diabetes.
The exact cause of type 1 diabetes is unknown. Most likely it is an autoimmune disorder. An infection or some other trigger causes the body to mistakenly attack the cells in the pancreas that make insulin. This kind of disorder can be passed down through families.

Symptoms:-

These symptoms may be the first signs of type 1 diabetes, or may occur when the blood sugar is high:

Being very thirsty
Feeling hungry
Feeling tired or fatigued
Having blurry eyesight
Losing the feeling or feeling tingling in your feet
Losing weight without trying
Urinating more often

For other people, these warning symptoms may be the first signs of type 1 diabetes, or they may happen when the blood sugar is very high (see: diabetic ketoacidosis):

Deep, rapid breathing
Dry skin and mouth
Flushed face
Fruity breath odor
Nausea or vomiting, inability to keep down fluids
Stomach pain

Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can develop quickly in people with diabetes who are taking insulin. Symptoms usually appear when the blood sugar level falls below 70 mg/dL. Watch for:

Headache
Hunger
Nervousness
Rapid heartbeat (palpitations)
Shaking
Sweating
Weakness

Signs and tests:-

Diabetes is diagnosed with the following blood tests:

Fasting blood glucose level -- diabetes is diagnosed if it is higher than 126 mg/dL two times

Random (nonfasting) blood glucose level -- you may have diabetes if it is higher than 200 mg/dL, and you have symptoms such as increased thirst, urination, and fatigue (this must be confirmed with a fasting test)

Oral glucose tolerance test -- diabetes is diagnosed if the glucose level is higher than 200 mg/dL after 2 hours

Hemoglobin A1c test:-

Normal: Less than 5.7%

Pre-diabetes: Between 5.7% and 6.4%

Diabetes: 6.5% or higher

Ketone testing is also sometimes used. The ketone test is done using a urine sample or blood sample. Ketone testing may be done:

When the blood sugar is higher than 240 mg/dL
During an illness such as pneumonia, heart attack, or stroke
When nausea or vomiting occur
During pregnancy

The following tests or exams will help you and your doctor monitor your diabetes and prevent problems caused by diabetes:

Check the skin and bones on your feet and legs.
Check to see if your feet are getting numb.
Have your blood pressure checked at least every year (blood pressure goal should be 130/80 mm/Hg or lower).
Have your hemoglobin A1c test (HbA1c) done every 6 months if your diabetes is well controlled; otherwise, every 3 months.
Have your cholesterol and triglyceride levels checked yearly (aim for LDL cholesterol levels below 70-100 mg/dL).
Get yearly tests to make sure your kidneys are working well (microalbuminuria and serum creatinine).
Visit your eye doctor at least once a year, or more often if you have signs of diabetic eye disease.
See the dentist every 6 months for a thorough dental cleaning and exam. Make sure your dentist and hygienist know that you have diabetes.

Treatment:-

Because type 1 diabetes can start quickly and the symptoms can be severe, people who have just been diagnosed may need to stay in the hospital.
If you have just been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes, you should probably have a check-up each week until you have good control over your blood sugar. Your health care provider will review the results of your home blood sugar monitoring and urine testing. Your provider will also look at your diary of meals, snacks, and insulin injections.
As the disease gets more stable, you will have fewer follow-up visits. Visiting your health care provider is very important so you can monitor any long-term problems from diabetes.

You are the most important person in managing your diabetes. You should know the basic steps to diabetes management:

How to recognize and treat low blood sugar (hypoglycemia)
How to recognize and treat high blood sugar (hyperglycemia)
Diabetes meal planning
How to give insulin
How to check blood glucose and urine ketones
How to adjust insulin and food when you exercise
How to handle sick days
Where to buy diabetes supplies and how to store them

INSULIN:-

Insulin lowers blood sugar by allowing it to leave the bloodstream and enter cells. Everyone with type 1 diabetes must take insulin every day. Insulin is usually injected under the skin. In some cases, a pump delivers the insulin all the time. Insulin does not come in pill form. Insulin types differ in how fast they start to work and how long they last. The health care provider will choose the best type of insulin for you and will tell you at what time of day to use it. More than one type of insulin may be mixed together in an injection to get the best blood glucose control. You may need insulin shots from one to four times a day.

Your health care provider or diabetes nurse educator will teach you how to give insulin injections. At first, a child's injections may be given by a parent or other adult. By age 14, most children can give their own injections.

People with diabetes need to know how to adjust the amount of insulin they are taking:

When they exercise
When they are sick
When they will be eating more or less food and calories
When they are traveling

DIET AND EXERCISE:-

People with type 1 diabetes should eat at about the same times each day and try to eat the same kinds of foods. This helps to prevent blood sugar from becoming too high or low. See also:

Regular exercise helps control the amount of sugar in the blood. It also helps burn extra calories and fat to reach a healthy weight.

Ask your health care provider before starting any exercise program. People with type 1 diabetes must take special steps before, during, and after intense physical activity or exercise. See also: Diabetes and exercise

MANAGING YOUR BLOOD SUGAR:-

Checking your blood sugar levels at home and writing down the results will tell you how well you are managing your diabetes. Talk to your doctor and diabetes educator about how often to check.

A device called a glucometer can read blood sugar levels. There are different types of devices. Usually, you prick your finger with a small needle called a lancet to get a tiny drop of blood. You place the blood on a test strip and put the strip into the device. You should have results in 30 - 45 seconds.

Keep a record of your blood sugar for yourself and your doctor or nurse. This will help if you have problems managing your diabetes. You and your doctor should set a target goal for your blood sugar levels at different times during the day. You should also plan what to do when your blood sugar is too low or high.

Low blood sugar is called hypoglycemia. Blood sugar levels below 70 mg/dL are too low and can harm you.

FOOT CARE:-

Diabetes damages the blood vessels and nerves. This can make you less able to feel pressure on the foot. You may not notice a foot injury until you get a severe infection.

Diabetes can also damage blood vessels. Small sores or breaks in the skin may become deeper skin sores (ulcers). The affected limb may need to be amputated if these skin ulcers do not heal or become larger or deeper.

To prevent problems with your feet:

Stop smoking if you smoke.
Improve control of your blood sugar.
Get a foot exam by your health care provider at least twice a year and learn whether you have nerve damage.
Check and care for your feet EVERY DAY, especially if you already have known nerve or blood vessel damage or current foot problems.
Make sure you are wearing the right kind of shoes.

PREVENTING COMPLICATIONS:-

Your doctor may prescribe medications or other treatments to reduce your chances of developing eye disease, kidney disease, and other conditions that are more common in people with diabetes.

Expectations (prognosis):-

Diabetes is a lifelong disease and there is not yet a cure. However, the outcome for people with diabetes varies. Studies show that tight control of blood glucose can prevent or delay problems with the eyes, kidneys, nervous system, and heart in type 1 diabetes. However, problems may occur even in people with good diabetes control.

Complications:-

If you have diabetes, your risk of a heart attack is the same as someone who has already had a heart attack. Both women and men with diabetes are at risk. You may not even have the normal signs of a heart attack.

After many years, diabetes can lead to other serious problems:

You could have eye problems, including trouble seeing (especially at night) and sensitivity to light. You could become blind.
Your feet and skin could develop sores and infections. If you have these sores for too long, your foot or leg may need to be removed. Infection can also cause pain and itching.
Diabetes may make it harder to control your blood pressure and cholesterol. This can lead to heart attack, stroke, and other problems. It can become harder for blood to flow to the legs and feet.
Nerves in the body can become damaged, causing pain, tingling, and loss of feeling.
Because of nerve damage, you could have problems digesting the food you eat. You could feel weakness or have trouble going to the bathroom. Nerve damage can also make it harder for men to have an erection.
High blood sugar and other problems can lead to kidney damage. The kidneys might not work as wellas they used to. They may even stop working.

Seizures:-

Call your health care provider or go to the emergency room if you have symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis.

Also call your doctor if you have:

Blood sugar levels that are higher than the goals you and your doctor have set
Numbness, tingling, or pain in your feet or legs
Problems with your eyesight
Sores or infections on your feet
Symptoms that your blood sugar is getting too low (feeling weak or tired, trembling, sweating, feeling irritable, having trouble thinking clearly, fast heartbeat, double or blurry vision, feeling uneasy)
Symptoms that your blood sugar is too high (being very thirsty, having blurry vision, having dry skin, feeling weak or tired, needing to urinate a lot)
You are having blood sugar readings below 70 mg/dL

You can treat early signs of hypoglycemia at home by eating sugar or candy, or by taking glucose tablets. If your signs of hypoglycemia continue or your blood glucose levels stay below 60 mg/dL, go to the emergency room.

Prevention:-

There is no way to prevent type 1 diabetes. There is no screening test for type 1 diabetes in people who have no symptoms.

Stay up-to-date with all of your vaccinations and get a flu shot every year in the fall.

Type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is a lifelong (chronic) disease in which there are high levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes.

Causes, incidence, and risk factors:-

Diabetes is caused by a problem in the way your body makes or uses insulin. Insulin is needed to move blood sugar (glucose) into cells, where it is stored and later used for energy.

When you have type 2 diabetes, your fat, liver, and muscle cells do not respond correctly to insulin. This is called insulin resistance. As a result, blood sugar does not get into these cells to be stored for energy.

When sugar cannot enter cells, high levels of sugar build up in the blood. This is called hyperglycemia.

Type 2 diabetes usually occurs slowly over time. Most people with the disease are overweight when they are diagnosed. Increased fat makes it harder for your body to use insulin the correct way.

Type 2 diabetes can also develop in people who are thin. This is more common in the elderly.

Family history and genes play a large role in type 2 diabetes. Low activity level, poor diet, and excess body weight around the waist increase your risk. See also: Type 2 diabetes for a list of risk factors.

Symptoms:-

Often, people with type 2 diabetes have no symptoms at first. They may not have symptoms for many years.

The early symptoms of diabetes may include:

Bladder, kidney, skin, or other infections that are more frequent or heal slowly
Fatigue
Hunger
Increased thirst
Increased urination
The first symptom may also be:
Blurred vision
Erectile dysfunction
Pain or numbness in the feet or hands

Signs and tests:-

Your health care provider may suspect that you have diabetes if your blood sugar level is higher than 200 mg/dL. To confirm the diagnosis, one or more of the following tests must be done.

Diabetes blood tests:

Fasting blood glucose level -- diabetes is diagnosed if it is higher than 126 mg/dL two times

Hemoglobin A1c test --

Normal: Less than 5.7%

Pre-diabetes: 5.7% - 6.4%

Diabetes: 6.5% or higher

Oral glucose tolerance test -- diabetes is diagnosed if glucose level is higher than 200 mg/dL after 2 hours

Diabetes screening is recommended for:

Overweight children who have other risk factors for diabetes, starting at age 10 and repeated every 2 years
Overweight adults (BMI greater than 25) who have other risk factors
Adults over age 45 every 3 years

You should see your health care provider every 3 months. At these visits, you can expect your health care provider to:

Check your blood pressure
Check the skin and bones on your feet and legs
Check to see if your feet are becoming numb
Examine the back part of the eye with a special lighted instrument called an ophthalmoscope
The following tests will help you and your doctor monitor your diabetes and prevent problems:
Have your blood pressure checked at least every year (blood pressure goals should be 130/80 mm/Hg or lower).
Have your hemoglobin A1c test (HbA1c) every 6 months if your diabetes is well controlled; otherwise every 3 months.
Have your cholesterol and triglyceride levels checked yearly (aim for LDL levels below 70-100 mg/dL).
Get yearly tests to make sure your kidneys are working well (microalbuminuria and serum creatinine).
Visit your eye doctor at least once a year, or more often if you have signs of diabetic eye disease.
See the dentist every 6 months for a thorough dental cleaning and exam. Make sure your dentist and hygienist know that you have diabetes.

Treatment:-

The goal of treatment at first is to lower high blood glucose levels. The long-term goals of treatment are to prevent problems from diabetes.

The main treatment for type 2 diabetes is exercise and diet.

LEARN THESE SKILLS:-

You should learn basic diabetes management skills. They will help prevent problems and the need for medical care. These skills include:

How to test and record your blood glucose
What to eat and when
How to take medications, if needed
How to recognize and treat low and high blood sugar
How to handle sick days
Where to buy diabetes supplies and how to store them

It may take several months to learn the basic skills. Always keep learning about diabetes, its complications, and how to control and live with the disease. Stay up-to-date on new research and treatments.

MANAGING YOUR BLOOD SUGAR:-

Self testing means that you check your blood sugar at home yourself. Checking your blood sugar levels at home and writing down the results will tell you how well you are managing your diabetes. A device called a glucometer can give you an exact blood sugar reading. There are different types of devices. Usually, you prick your finger with a small needle called a lancet. This gives you a tiny drop of blood. You place the blood on a test strip and put the strip into the device. Results are given in 30 - 45 seconds. A health care provider or diabetes educator will help set up an at-home testing schedule for you. Your doctor will help you set your blood sugar goals.

Most people with type 2 diabetes only need to check their blood sugar once or twice a day.If your blood sugar levels are under control, you may only need to check them a few times a week.You may test yourself when you wake up, before meals, and at bedtime.You may need to test more often when you are sick or under stress. The results of the test can be used to change your meals, activity, or medications to keep your blood sugar levels in the right range. Testing can identify high and low blood sugar levels before you have serious problems. Keep a record of your blood sugar for yourself and your health care provider. This will help if you are having trouble managing your diabetes.

DIET AND WEIGHT CONTROL:-

Work closely with your doctor, nurse, and dietitian to learn how much fat, protein, and carbohydrates you need in your diet. Your meal plans should fit your daily lifestyle and habits, and should try to include foods that you like. Managing your weight and eating a well-balanced diet are important. Some people with type 2 diabetes can stop taking medications after losing weight (although they still have diabetes).

REGULAR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY:-

Regular exercise is important for everyone. It is even more important you have diabetes. Exercise in which your heart beats faster and you breathe faster helps lower your blood sugar level without medication. It also burns extra calories and fat so you can manage your weight. Exercise can help your health by improving blood flow and blood pressure. Exercise also increases the body's energy level, lowers tension, and improves your ability to handle stress. Ask your health care provider before starting any exercise program. People with type 2 diabetes must take special steps before, during, and after intense physical activity or exercise. See also: Diabetes and exercise

MEDICATIONS TO TREAT DIABETES:-

If diet and exercise do not help keep your blood sugar at normal or near-normal levels, your doctor may prescribe medication. Since these drugs help lower your blood sugar levels in different ways, your doctor may have you take more than one drug.

Some of the most common types of medication are listed below. They are taken by mouth or injection.

Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors (such as acarbose)
Biguanides (Metformin)
Injectable medicines (including exenatide, mitiglinide, pramlintide, sitagliptin, and saxagliptin)
Meglitinides (including repaglinide and nateglinide)
Sulfonylureas (like glimepiride, glyburide, and tolazamide)
Thiazolidinediones (such as rosiglitazone and pioglitazone). (Rosiglitazone may increase the risk of heart problems. Talk to your doctor.)

These drugs may be given with insulin, or insulin may be used alone. You may need insulin if you continue to have poor blood glucose control. It must be injected under the skin using a syringe or insulin pen device. It cannot be taken by mouth. It is not known whether hyperglycemia medications taken by mouth are safe for use in pregnancy. Women who have type 2 diabetes and become pregnant may be switched to insulin during their pregnancy and while breast-feeding.

PREVENTING COMPLICATIONS:-

Your doctor may prescribe medications or other treatments to reduce your chances of developing eye disease, kidney disease, and other conditions that are more common in people with diabetes.

FOOT CARE:-

People with diabetes are more likely to have foot problems. Diabetes can damage nerves, which means you may not feel an injury to the foot until you get a large sore or infection. Diabetes can also damage blood vessels. Diabetes also decreases the body's ability to fight infection. Small infections can quickly get worse and cause the death of skin and other tissues. To prevent injury to your feet, check and care for your feet every day.

Expectations (prognosis):-

After many years, diabetes can lead to serious problems with your eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart, blood vessels, or other areas in your body. If you have diabetes, your risk of a heart attack is the same as that of someone who has already had a heart attack. Both women and men with diabetes are at risk. You may not even have the normal signs of a heart attack. If you control your blood sugar and blood pressure, you can reduce your risk of death, stroke, heart failure, and other diabetes problems.
Some people with type 2 diabetes no longer need medicine if they lose weight and become more active. When they reach their ideal weight, their body's own insulin and a healthy diet can control their blood sugar levels.

Complications:-

After many years, diabetes can lead to serious problems:

You could have eye problems, including trouble seeing (especially at night), and light sensitivity. You could become blind.
Your feet and skin can develop sores and infections. After a long time, your foot or leg may need to be removed. Infection can also cause pain and itching in other parts of the body.
Diabetes may make it harder to control your blood pressure and cholesterol. This can lead to a heart attack, storke, and other problems. It can become harder for blood to flow to your legs and feet.
Nerves in your body can get damaged, causing pain, tingling, and a loss of feeling.
Because of nerve damage, you could have problems digesting the food you eat. You could feel weakness or have trouble going to the bathroom. Nerve damage can make it harder for men to have an erection.
High blood sugar and other problems can lead to kidney damage. Your kidneys may not work as well, and they may even stop working.
Infections of the skin, female genital tract, and urinary tract are also more common.

To prevent problems from diabetes, visit your health care provider or diabetes educator at least four times a year. Talk about any problems you are having.

Call your doctor if you have:

Numbness, tingling, or pain in your feet or legs
Problems with your eyesight
Sores or infections on your feet
Symptoms of high blood sugar (being very thirsty, having blurry vision, having dry skin, feeling weak or tired, needing to urinate a lot)
Symptoms of low blood sugar (feeling weak or tired, trembling, sweating, feeling irritable, having trouble thinking clearly, fast heartbeat, double or blurry vision, feeling uneasy)

Prevention:-

You can help prevent type 2 diabetes by keeping a healthy body weight and an active lifestyle.
Stay up-to-date with all your vaccinations and get a flu shot every year.

Urinalysis

Urine appearance and color; Routine urine test
Urinalysis is the physical, chemical, and microscopic examination of urine. It involves a number of tests to detect and measure various compounds that pass through the urine.

How the test is performed:-

A urine sample is needed. Your health care provider will tell you what type of urine sample is needed.
The sample is sent to a lab, where it examined for the following:

Physical color and appearance:

What does the urine look like to the naked eye?
Is it clear or cloudy?
Is it pale or dark yellow or another color?

The urine specific gravity test reveals how concentrated or dilute the urine is.

Microscopic appearance:

The urine sample is examined under a microscope to look at cells, urine crystals, mucus, and other substances in the sample, and to identify any bacteria or other germs that might be present.

Chemical appearance:

A special stick ("dipstick") tests for various substances in the urine. The stick contains little pads of chemicals that change color when they come in contact with the substances of interest.

How to prepare for the test

Certain medicines change the color of urine, but this is not a sign of disease. Your doctor may tell you to stop taking any medicines that can affect test results.

Medicines that can change your urine color include:

Chloroquine
Iron supplements
Levodopa
Nitrofurantoin
Phenazopyridine
Phenothiazines
Phenytoin
Riboflavin
Triamterene

How the test will feel:

The test involves only normal urination, and there is no discomfort.

Why the test is performed

A urinalysis may be done:

As part of a routine medical exam to screen for early signs of disease
If you have signs of diabetes or kidney disease, or to monitor you if you are being treated for these conditions
To check for blood in the urine
To diagnose a urinary tract infection

Additional conditions under which the test may be performed:

Acute bilateral obstructive uropathy
Acute nephritic syndrome
Acute tubular necrosis
Acute unilateral obstructive uropathy
Alkalosis
Alport syndrome
Analgesic nephropathy
Anorexia nervosa
Atheroembolic renal disease
Atrial myxoma
Bladder stones
Chronic bilateral obstructive uropathy
Chronic glomerulonephritis
Chronic or recurrent urinary tract infection
Chronic renal failure
Chronic unilateral obstructive uropathy
Chronic urethritis
Complicated UTI (pyelonephritis)
Congenital nephrotic syndrome
Cystinuria
Delirium
Dementia
Dementia due to metabolic causes
Diabetes insipidus -- central
Diabetic nephropathy/sclerosis
Enuresis
Epididymitis
Failure to thrive
Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis
Goodpasture syndrome
Heart failure
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS)
Henoch-Schonlein purpura
Insulin-dependent diabetes (IDD)
IgA nephropathy (Berger's disease)
Injury of the kidney and ureter
Interstitial nephritis
Irritable bladder
Left-sided heart failure
Lupus nephritis
Malignant hypertension (arteriolar nephrosclerosis)
Medullary cystic kidney disease
Membranoproliferative GN I
Membranoproliferative GN II
Membranous nephropathy
Myelomeningocele (children)
Necrotizing vasculitis
Nephrotic syndrome
Noninsulin-dependent diabetes (NIDD)
Orchitis
Ovarian cancer
Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH)
Polycystic kidney disease
Post-streptococcal GN
Prerenal azotemia
Primary amyloidosis
Prostate cancer
Prostatitis, acute
Prostatitis, chronic
Prostatitis, nonbacterial
Pyelonephritis, acute
Rapidly progressive (crescentic) glomerulonephritis
Reflux nephropathy
Renal papillary necrosis
Renal tubular acidosis, distal
Renal tubular acidosis, proximal
Renal vein thrombosis
Retrograde ejaculation
Rhabdomyolysis
Right-sided heart failure
Secondary systemic amyloidosis
Stress incontinence
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Systemic sclerosis (scleroderma)
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura
Traumatic injury of the bladder and urethra
Ureterocele
Urethral stricture
Urethritis
Wegener's granulomatosis
Wilms tumor

Normal Values:-

Normal urine may vary in color from almost colorless to dark yellow. Some foods (like beets and blackberries) may turn the urine a red color.
Usually, glucose, ketones, protein, and bilirubin are not detectable in urine. The following are not normally found in urine:

Hemoglobin
Nitrites
Red blood cells
White blood cells

Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results.

What the risks are:-

There are no risks.

Special considerations:-

If a home test is used, the person reading the results must be able to distinguish between different colors, since the results are interpreted using a color chart.

Glucose test - blood

A blood glucose test measures the amount of a sugar called glucose in a sample of your blood.

Glucose is a major source of energy for most cells of the body, including those in the brain. Carbohydrates (or carbs) are found in fruit, cereal, bread, pasta, and rice. They are quickly turned into glucose in your body. This raises your blood glucose level. Hormones made in the body called insulin and glucagon help control blood glucose levels.

How the test is performed:-

A blood sample is needed. For information on how this is done, see: Venipuncture.

How to prepare for the test:-

The test may be done in 2 ways:

After you have not eaten anything for at least 8 hours (fasting)
At any time of the day (random)

How the test will feel:-

When the needle is inserted to draw blood, some people feel moderate pain, while others feel only a prick or stinging sensation. Afterward, there may be some throbbing.

Why the test is performed:-

Your doctor may order this test if you have signs of diabetes. However, other tests (glucose tolerance test and fasting blood glucose test) are better for diagnosing diabetes. The blood glucose test is also used to monitor patients who have the diabetes. It may also be done if you have:

A change in behavior
Fainting spells
Seizures for the first time

Normal Values:-

If you had a fasting blood glucose test, a level between 70 and100 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) is considered normal.

If you had a random blood glucose test, normal results depend on when you last ate. Most of the time, blood glucose levels will be below 125 mg/dL.

Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results.
The examples above show the common measurements for results for these tests. Some laboratories use different measurements or may test different specimens.

What abnormal results mean:-

If you had a fasting blood glucose test:

A level of 100-125mg/dL means you have impaired fasting glucose, a type of prediabetes. This increases your risk for type 2 diabetes.
A level of 126 mg/dL and higher most often means you have diabetes.

Higher-than-normal random blood glucose levels may be a sign of diabetes. In someone with diabetes, it may mean the diabetes is not well controlled. Your healthcare provider will likely order a fasting blood glucose or a glucose tolerance test, depending on your random test result.

Other medical problems may also cause higher-than-normal blood glucose levels, including:

Overactive thyroid gland
Pancreatic cancer
Pancreatitis
Rare tumors, including pheochromocytoma,acromegaly,Cushing syndrome, or glucagonoma
Lower-than-normal blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia) may be due to:
Hypopituitarism (a pituitary gland disorder)
Underactive thyroid gland
Insulinoma (very rare)
Too little food
Too much insulin or other diabetes medications

What the risks are:-

Veins and arteries vary in size from one patient to another and from one side of the body to the other. Obtaining a blood sample from some people may be more difficult than from others.

Other risks associated with having blood drawn are slight but may include:

Excessive bleeding
Fainting or feeling light-headed
Hematoma (blood accumulating under the skin)
Infection (a slight risk any time the skin is broken)

Special considerations:-

Many forms of severe stress (for example, trauma, stroke, heart attack, and surgery) can temporarily raise blood glucose levels.

Drugs that can increase glucose measurements include the following:

Certain medicines to treat schizophrenia and psychosis
Beta-blockers (such as propranolol)
Corticosteroids (such as prednisone)
Estrogens
Glucagon
Isoniazid
Lithium
Oral contraceptives (birth control pills)
Phenothiazines
Phenytoin
Salicylates (see aspirin overdose)
Thiazide diuretics (such as hydrochlorothiazide)
Triamterene
Tricyclic antidepressants

Drugs that can decrease glucose measurements include the following:

Acetaminophen
Alcohol
Anabolic steroids
Clofibrate
Disopyramide
Gemfibrozil
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
Pentamidine

HbA1c

HbA1c is a lab test that shows the average level of blood sugar (glucose) over the previous 3 months. It shows how well you are controlling your diabetes.

How the test is performed:-

A blood sample is needed. Some methods only require a quick finger stick. Others may need a sample of blood from a vein. For information on how this is done, see: Venipuncture.

How to prepare for the test:-

No special preparation is needed.

How the test will feel:-

When the needle is inserted, you may feel a slight pinch or some stinging. Afterward, there may be some throbbing.

Why the test is performed:-

Your doctor may order this test if you have diabetes. It shows how well you are controlling your diabetes.

The test may also be used to screen for diabetes.

Normal Values:-

An HbA1c of 5.6% or less is normal.

The following are the results when the HbA1c is being used to diagnose diabetes:

Normal: Less than 5.7%
Pre-diabetes: 5.7% to 6.4%
Diabetes: 6.5% or higher

If you have diabetes, you and your doctor or nurse will discuss the correct range for you. For many people the goal is to keep your level at or below 6.5 - 7%.

What abnormal results mean:-

Abnormal results mean that you have had high blood sugar levels over a period of weeks to months.

If your HbA1c is above 6.5% and you do not already have diabetes, you may be diagnosed with diabetes.

If your level is above 7% and you have diabetes, it often means that your is not well controlled. Your target HbA1c should be determined by you and your health care provider.

In general, the higher your HbA1c, the higher the risk that you will develop problems such as:

Eye disease
Heart disease
Kidney disease
Nerve damage
Stroke

If your HbA1c stays high for a long period of time, the risk for these problems is even greater. Ask your doctor how often you should have your level tested. Usually, doctors recommend testing every 3 or 6 months.

What the risks are:-

Obtaining a blood sample from some people may be more difficult than from others.
Other risks associated with having blood drawn are slight, but may include:
Excessive bleeding
Fainting or feeling light-headed
Hematoma (blood accumulating under the skin)
Infection (a slight risk any time the skin is broken)

Glucose tolerance test

Oral glucose tolerance test

The glucose tolerance test is a lab test to check how your body breaks down sugar.

How the test is performed:-

The most common glucose tolerance test is the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Before the test begins, a sample of blood will be taken. You will then be asked to drink a liquid containing a certain amount of glucose (usually 75 grams). Your blood will be taken again every 30 to 60 minutes after you drink the solution. The test takes up to 3 hours.

A similar test is the IV glucose tolerance test (IGTT). It is rarely used, and never used to diagnose diabetes. In this test, glucose is injected into your vein for 3 minutes. Blood insulin levels are measured before the injection, and again at 1 and 3 minutes after the injection. However, the timing may vary.

How to prepare for the test:-

Make sure you eat normally for several days before the test.
Do not eat or drink anything for at least 8 hours before the test. You cannot eat during the test.
Ask your health care provider if any of the medicines you take can affect the test results.

How the test will feel:-

Some people feel nauseated, sweaty, light-headed, or may even feel short of breath or faint after drinking the glucose. However, serious side effects of this test are very uncommon. When the needle is inserted to draw blood, some people feel moderate pain. Others feel only a prick or stinging sensation. Afterward, there may be some throbbing.

Why the test is performed:-

Glucose is the sugar the body uses for energy. Patients with untreated diabetes have high blood glucose levels. Glucose tolerance tests are one of the tools used to diagnose diabetes.
Above-normal blood glucose levels can be used to diagnose type 2 diabetes or high blood glucose during pregnancy (gestational diabetes). Insulin levels may also be measured. (Insulin is the hormone produced by the pancreas that moves glucose from the blood into cells.)
The oral glucose tolerance test is used to screen pregnant women for gestational diabetes between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy. It may also be used when the disease is suspected, even though the fasting blood glucose level is normal.

Normal Values:-

Normal blood values for a 75-gram oral glucose tolerance test used to check for type 2 diabetes in those who are not pregnant:

Fasting: 60 -100 mg/dL

1 hour: less than 200 mg/dL

2 hours: less than 140 mg/dL

Note: mg/dL = milligrams per deciliter

The examples above are common measurements for results of these tests. Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Some labs use different measurements or test different samples. Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results.

What abnormal results mean:-

Higher-than-normal levels of glucose may mean you have prediabetes, diabetes, or gestational diabetes.

Between 140 - 200 mg/dL is called impaired glucose tolerance. Your doctor may call this "prediabetes." It means you are at increased risk for developing diabetes.

A glucose level of 200 mg/dL or higher is a sign of diabetes.

However, high glucose levels may be related to another medical problem (for example, Cushing syndrome).

What the risks are:-

Veins and arteries vary in size from one patient to another and from one side of the body to the other. Obtaining a blood sample from some people may be more difficult than from others.

Other risks associated with having blood drawn are slight but may include:

Excessive bleeding
Fainting or feeling light-headed
Hematoma (blood accumulating under the skin)
Infection (a slight risk any time the skin is broken)

Special considerations:-

Factors that may affect the test results:
Acute stress (for example, from surgery or an infection)
Vigorous exercise

Several drugs may cause glucose intolerance, including:

Atypical antipsychotic medications, including aripiprazole, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone
Beta-blockers (for example, propranolol)
Birth control pills
Corticosteroids (for example, prednisone)
Dextrose
Epinephrine
Estrogens
Glucagon
Isoniazid
Lithium
Phenothiazines
Phenytoin
Salicylates (including aspirin)
Thiazide diuretics (for example, hydrochlorothiazide)
Triamterene
Tricyclic antidepressants

Before having the test, let your health care provider know if you are taking any of these medications.

Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/s/diseases_and_conditions/d/
http://www.diabetes.co.uk/World-Diabetes-Day.html

Tuesday, 12 June 2012

My Sister - May her soul rest in peace

Thursday, 7 June 2012

but you broke my heart

you
you
you spoiled me
you broke my heart, idiotttttttttttttttttt

Monday, 14 May 2012

One World

എനിക്കുമുണ്ട്‌ , നിനക്കുമുണ്ട്

അവള്‍ക്കുമുണ്ട്, അവനുമുണ്ട്-

അതിനുമുണ്ട് ഒരു ലോകം

വലിയ ലോകം, വലുതിനു ചെറുതായ ലോകം

ചെറിയ ലോകം, ചെറുതിന് വലുതായ ലോകം.

ഞാന്‍ ചിരിക്കുന്നത് അവര്‍ക്ക് ഇഷ്ടമല്ല

ഞാന്‍ കരയുന്നത് അവര്‍ക്ക് സഹിക്കയില്ല-

ഞാന്‍ മിണ്ടാതിരുന്നാല്‍ പ്രശ്നം-

മിണ്ടിപ്പോയാലും പ്രശ്നം;

നാലു ചുവരിന്റെ ചെറിയ ലോകത്തില്‍ അവരെന്നെ ഒതുക്കി, ജയിച്ചു!

അതിരുകളില്ലാ ചിന്താലോകത്തില്‍ ഞാന്‍ എന്നും സ്വതന്ത്രന്‍,

അവരുടെ സങ്കല്‍പ്പ ലോകമെന്തു ശുഷ്കം, കഷ്ടം!

പഠിക്കേണ്ട, ജോലിക്ക് പോകേണ്ട,

കല്യാണത്തിനും അടിയന്തിരത്തിനും കൂടേണ്ട

പതിവായ് കുളിക്കേണ്ട, മുറ്റമടിക്കേണ്ട

തുണി അലക്കേണ്ടാ, പാചകം ചെയ്യേണ്ടാ

ഉത്തമ പുത്രന്റെ കടമക്കടലില്‍ കിടന്നു-

ഉഴറേണ്ട, അഭിപ്രായ തീയില്‍പ്പെട്ടു സ്വയം എരിയേണ്ട

എനിക്കും എന്റെ ആലസ്യ നിശ്വാസങ്ങള്‍ക്കും ഇത് വലിയ ലോകം

എനിക്കും എന്റെ ഉണങ്ങിയ അത്താഴ വറ്റു ചുമക്കുന്ന -

ചോനല്‍ ഉറുമ്പിനും ഇത് അത്ഭുതങ്ങളുടെ ബ്റിഹത് ലോകം

ഒരു ലോകം, ചെറിയ ലോകങ്ങളില്‍ വലിയ ലോകങ്ങള്‍ ഒളിഞ്ഞിരിപ്പൂ,

വലിയ ലോകങ്ങളില്‍ ചെറിയ ലോകങ്ങളുടെ മന്ത്രമിരിപ്പൂ !

Sunday, 13 May 2012

Mother's Day

ഇന്ന് മാതൃദിനം. ലോകത്തെ എല്ലാ അമ്മമാരേയും കുറിച്ച് ഓര്‍ക്കുവാന്‍ ഒരു ദിനം; സ്വന്തം അമ്മയെയും!

നാളിതു വരെ എന്നെ പോറ്റി വളര്‍ത്തി, വലുതാക്കി, തിരികെ ഞാന്‍ നല്‍കിയ വേദനകളൊക്കെയും സഹിച്ചു എന്നെ ഇപ്പോഴും ജീവനുതുല്യം സ്നേഹിക്കുന്ന എനിക്കായി മാത്രം ജീവിക്കുന്ന എന്നെ അവരുടെ ലോകത്തിലെ റാണിയായി കാണുന്ന എന്‍റെ പൊന്ന് അമ്മയ്ക്ക് സാഷ്ടാംഗ പ്രണാമം !

അമ്മേ, ഞാന്‍ ചെയ്ത എല്ലാ തെറ്റുകള്‍ക്കും മാപ്പ്. എന്നോട് ക്ഷമിക്കു...

അമ്മയ്ക്ക് എന്‍റെ നൂറു നൂറു ഉമ്മകള്‍ !

ഉമ്മ!

An easy path to China

There has always been this old lore about a hidden road to China through the north-east . One of the earliest Muslim conquerors who wanted to find out more about it was Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji, the general of Qutubuddin Aibek, the first Sultan of Delhi. In 1206, he entered Assam seeking passage to Tibet; but the expedition ended in disaster as the local king, Prithu, defeated him and destroyed his army. Several centuries later, Aurangzeb sent an expedition to Assam under his premier noble, Mir Jumla. Although the primary brief to him was to subjugate the "unruly Assamese", Aurangzeb wanted his armies to conquer territories of the Qing empire in China.

The Mughals may have had information about a shorter and less difficult route to China. But it were the British who first mapped this road in the 19th century. Now, almost 150 years later, a filmmaker claims to have found the road that could give India the fastest land access to China.

'Road To China', a 26-minute documentary by Mrinal Talukdar, highlights the road that starts from Tinsukia in upper Assam and traverses a distance of some 300 km through hilly terrain before reaching Kaho, the last village near the Line of Actual Control . Talukdar believes this road needs to be opened up to facilitate bilateral trade between India and China, which stands at $74 billion. With India planning to expand it to $100 bn by 2015, this road could become a vital link between both countries.

"I had first undertaken a journey to trace the Tsangpo river from the point it entered India till it became the mighty Brahmaputra. It was then that I learnt about this road," Talukdar says. He believes it's a better alternative to the 1,740 km Stilwell Road which connects Ledo in Assam to Kunming in Yunnan province of China. India had thought of opening it up in 2004 but abandoned it due to the physical difficulties.

"It would have required us to clear 400 km of forests and collaborate with the military junta in Myanmar, as over 1,000 km of the road passes through that country . But this road is only 300 km and takes you right up to China's doorstep. It doesn't need any major infrastructure development as it leads to the border beyond which China has all-weather four-lane highways connected to the interiors of the country."

According to Cambridge University scholar Berenice Guyot-Rechard , when the British explored Lohit Valley, they found that although isolated from the rest of India, it served as a corridor between Assam and China. Traders, pilgrims, smugglers and even prostitutes used it. The two biggest cities on this route were Sadiya (Assam) and Rima (China). Today, Tinsukia has replaced Sadiya, while Rima has disappeared from the map.

In the film, Talukdar undertakes the fascinating journey himself. He takes the Rajdhani Express from Guwahati to Tinsukia and then takes a 30-minute ride to reach Dirak Gate on the Assam-Arunachal border. Permits are needed for any onward journey. The NH52 then takes him to Namsai, Chowkham, Parashuram Kund, Hailyung , Walong and Kibithu, the brigade HQ of the Indian Army. Civilian movement beyond Kibithu is restricted as the Chinese border is close by. The town is strongly defended. But during the 1962 war, Red Army soldiers conquered the loosely defended town of Walong. After the war, the road was closed.

When C S Jenow, the deputy commissioner of Anjaw district, Arunachal Pradesh, was asked if the road could be opened up someday for trade, he said, "Trade is all right but the government needs to factor in potentially dangerous aspects. The British empire's opium trade had its ripples in the region. Tirap and Lohit districts in Arunachal became part of it. That threat is still there as the area is close to the Golden Triangle. Once you throw open the border, it might become difficult to control it." Talukdar's dream could take a while to come true.

Courtsey:-http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-toi/special-report/Found-hidden-road-to-China/articleshow/13016402.cms

Wednesday, 25 April 2012

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Saturday, 14 April 2012

MNEMONICS

THE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC

Here's a mnemonic sentence of words whose first letters help to recall the names of the 12 signs of the western astrological zodiac in their correct order:

"A Tense Grey Cat Lay Very Low, Sneaking Slowly, Contemplating A Pounce"

(Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces)

Here's a rhyme written by E. Cobham Brewer that tells the order of the 12 constellations by describing theirsymbols rather than names:

Our ¹vernal signs the RAM begins,
Then comes the BULL, in May the TWINS;
The CRAB in June, next LEO shines,
And VIRGO ends the northern signs.

The BALANCE brings autumnal fruits,
The SCORPION stings, the ARCHER shoots;
December's GOAT brings wintry blast,
AQUARIUS rain, the FISH comes last.

(¹vernal = of/in the season of Spring)

Here's an alternative in the form of a verse by the English hymn-writer Isaac Watts (1674-1748):

The RAM, the BULL, the heavenly TWINS,
And next the CRAB, the LION shines,
The VIRGO and the SCALES;

The SCORPION, ARCHER and SEA-GOAT,
The MAN who pours the water out
And FISH with glittering tails.

being:
dates (birth period) - sign - symbol - element
21.Mar/20.Apr - Aries - the ram - F
21.Apr/20.May - Taurus - the bull - E
21.May/20.Jun - Gemini - the twins - A
21.Jun/20.Jul - Cancer - the crab - W

23.Jul/22.Aug - Leo - the lion - F
23.Aug/22.Sep - Virgo - the virgin - E
23.Sep/22.Oct - Libra - the scales - A
23.Oct/22.Nov - Scorpio - the scorpion - W

23.Nov/22.Dec - Sagittarius - the archer - F
23.Dec/20.Jan - Capricorn - the goat - E
21.Jan/19.Feb - Aquarius - the water-bearer - A
20.Feb/20.Mar - Pisces - the fish - W

The right-hand symbols F,E,A,W above denote the four elements Fire, Earth, Air and Water. Each zodiacal sign is associated with one of these elements in turn. To help remember their strict order of rotation think how:-

To start - ready... aim... Fire

Fire has E/A/W? - Yes, E - which starts Earth
Earth has A/W/F? - Yes, A - which starts Air
Air has W/F/E? - No, but there's still Water...
And the last two end in R (the only letter found in all)!

The order can also be remembered visually as a "crossword":

			F
			I
			R
			E	A	R	T	H
				I
W	A	T	E	R

1D = Fire
2A = Earth
3D = Air
4A = Water

The western (as opposed to Chinese) system of astrology may have begun in Babylonian times but first gained popularity in ancient Greece by about 400BC. Much later Claudius Ptolemy (a Greek born in Alexandria) wrote the first comprehensive textbook on the subject, titled the Tetrabiblos, in the second century AD. It was he that first systematised astrology by dividing the constellations into groups of four elements (F,E,A,W) and three qualities which described their functions.

The only symbol shared by both the Western Zodiac and the Chinese Calender is the sheep - being Aries the ram.

DAYS IN EACH MONTH

The number of days in each month has remained unchanged for 2000 years (since 45 B.C. in fact, when Julius Caesar introduced the Julian Calendar). Here's a well-known mnemonic rhyme which has been in existence for over 400 years, to indicate the exact number of days in each different month:

30 days hath September,
  April, June and November,
All the rest have 31,
  Excepting February alone
(And that has 28 days clear,
  With 29 in each leap year).

The number of days in each month can also be found by counting across the knuckles and valleys on the back of each clenched fist (from left to right):

Each "knuckle" month has 31 days, while each "valley" month has only 30 days (excepting of course February).

February has a smaller "leftover" amount of 28 or 29 days because pre-45 B.C. it was the last month of the Roman calendar year which started every March.

Each month-name originated from the Roman calendar, and mostly from the pre-Julian (or "Nunian") calendar where September was Septilis (Latin for 'seventh month') and is still the seventh month counting from March. Similarly October, November and December mean 'eighth, ninth, and tenth month'. The fifth month wasQuinctilis until it was renamed Julius (hence July) in honour of Julius Caesar, whereupon his successor theemperor Augustus renamed Sextilis after himself too (hence August). Augustus also added a day to August (making 31) so as match that for Julius!

The remaining months are either named after Roman gods (Janus, Mars, Maia, Juno) or have a religious significance (Februarius meaning 'purification month' before the new year cycle, and Aprilis being connected to well-being and prosperity).

THE CHESSBOARD

Here are three useful mnemonic phrases for orientating a chessboard correctly so that the queens and other pieces can be set up properly:

(1.) " White is right! "
(2.) " Queen on her own... "
(3. )" 1-2-3, R'n'B !!

(1.) The board must always be set with a white square in each player's nearest right-hand corner before (2.) each player then places a queen on the central rear-rank square of the queen's own colour (ie. White queen on a white square and Black queen on the opposite black square), so that the queens face each other directly on White's left and Black's right side of the board.

BLACK
Queen - King

R-N-B Q-K B-N-R

WHITE
Queen - King

R-N-B Q-K B-N-R

(3.) The remaining rear-rank pieces are relatively simple (rooks in each corner, knights next to rooks, and bishops always third file in) but if you find the bishop and knight positions confusing to set up, just remember the "rhythm and blues" acronym R'n'B. In algebraic notation a knight is represented by N (rather than Kt, because K represents king), so place the pieces from the left corner as "1-2-3, R-N-B" with the reverse on the right side.

Incidentally in end-play, to force checkmate against a lone king a player requires at least (a) king and queen, or (b) king and rook, or (c) king and two bishops or (d) king, bishop and knight.

Mate cannot be forced against a lone king with just (a) king alone, or (b) king plus bishop or knight, or (c) king and two knights (although obviously poor moves may still enable mate).

Ultimately knights are weaker than bishops in end-play. To help remember this, just recall that:

"With a king, 2 days and 2 knights,
you still won't force checkmate in fights!"

SURVIVAL IN EXTREME CONDITIONS

Here's a mnemonic promoted by Ray Mears in his BBC "Extreme Survival" series in March 2000 that spells out the steps you should take to ensure you have the best chance of surviving if caught out in any extreme conditions of nature:

" S-T-O-P "

(Stop, Take Inventory, Orientate, Plan)

"Stop" is used here as an acronym (a word formed from the initial letters of other words) to indicate the four key points that will aid your chances of survival in any extreme conditions of nature (such as breaking down in the desert, being stranded in the jungle or being caught in a snowstorm):

 Stop: Don't panic - just stop and think carefully about the exact nature of your circumstances. For example, are you in any immediate danger or in a rapidly or slowly worsening situation that you may yet be able to gain control of?

 Take Inventory: Look around you for any useful items. What do you already have with you that can help you to survive? Separate what you need from what you don't need.

 Orientate Yourself: Where are North/South/East/West, and in which direction were you heading originally? From what direction would a rescue be most likely to come?

 Plan Ahead: Are you likely to be rescued? How long must you plan to endure? What is the safest way of ensuring that you can survive until rescue comes? Will anyone be searching for you? What's your best means of effecting your own escape if necessary?

The one other key element to survival is actually having the will, the determination to survive. Never think of giving up hope, because if you're determined to survive then you will definitely last longer - and thus greatly increase the probability of either escape or rescue from whatever danger you face.

ADDRESSING PEOPLE OF LETTERS

Here is a mnemonic for the order of precedence used in expressing honours and degrees after a persons' name:

" Honour before degree,
Degree before M.P."

Thus: "Mr. J.Smith, V.C., M.A." and
"Roy Jones, Esq., D.S.O., B.Sc., M.P."

COLOUR MIXTURES

Here's a useful mnemonic for the results of mixing primary and complimentary (or secondary) colours:

" Better Get Ready When
Your Mistress Comes Back "

(Primary:) Blue, Green, Red = White
(Secondary:) Yellow, Magenta, Cyan = Black.

BGR are the primary colours of light, also known as additive colours. When all three (BGR) are combined, there is total colour (ie. white light).

The secondary YMC colours are the primary colours of paint (used to make most other shades), calledsubtractive because they each absorb (or subtract) one primary colour of light (reflecting the light of the other two only). When all three (YMC) combine, there is no colour (ie. light) left to see.

The mnemonic also shows the ordered relationship between BGR and YMC:

Yellow = non-Blue (ie. combined G/R only)
Magenta = non-Green (ie. combined B/R only)
Cyan = non-Red (ie. combined B/G only)
just as
Blue = non-Yellow (ie. combined M/C only)
Green = non-Magenta (ie. combined Y/C only)
Red = non-Cyan (ie. combined Y/M only)

SQUARE ROOTS

For many years mnemonics have been employed to memorise useful figures to several decimal places by constructing sentences that contain words of different lengths, each word-length representing each different digit.

Here are some sentences to recall square roots (each to 3 dec.places):

a). For the square root of 2:

" I wish I knew
( 1 . 4 1 4 ) the root of two "

b). For the square root of 3:

" O charmed was he
( 1 . 7 3 2 ) to know the root of three "

c). For the square root of 5:

" So now we strive
( 2 . 3 2 6 ) to know the root of five "

d). For the square root of 6:

" We need more logistics
( 2 . 4 4 9 ) to know the root of six "

THE LAWS OF PROBABILITY

1. Here's a new mnemonic rhyme for the formula to determine the likely outcome of two alternative events:

" For either/or, add both together
minus both at once (if ever)... "

ie. P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

The "addition" formula governs mutually exclusive events such as "heads or tails" where P(A and B) is always zero (ie. impossible), and the occurrence of single independent outcomes such as "rich or tall".

2. For the probability of joint independent events such as "rich and tall" occurring at the same time:

" And if you need to both discover,
multiply one times the other... "

ie. P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B)

3. For conditional probability, where a likelihood of B depends upon (or is altered by) the outcome of A:

" Only when affects position,
multiply by changed condition... "

ie. P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B given A)

The "mathematical poetry" is by Peter Hobbs, but similar rhymes are likely to have been made up by far better mathematicians in the past!

CONVERTING MILES AND KILOMETRES

Here's a mnemonic device for recalling how to easily convert miles to kilometres and vice-versa, supplied by Francis Garcia of Woking, GB:

Use Fibonnacci Numbers

1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89 etc

Fibonnacci numbers begin at 1,2 and extend in an infinite series by adding the last two numbers to get the next (ie. 1+2=3 and 2+3=5). And amazingly, any two consecutive Fibonnacci numbers give a fairly accurate "mile" and "kilometre" conversion. For example:

13 miles = 21 km!
21 miles = 34 km!

Miles are "imperial scale" measures while kilometres are "metric scale", but a "Fibonnacci" method of approximate conversion is surprisingly accurate compared with calculations using proper conversion formulas. Compare the figures in the charts below:

1 mile = 1.609 km
miles	km (Fib.)	km (exact)
1	2	1.61
2	3	3.22
3	5	4.83
5	8	8.04
8	13	12.87
13	21	20.92
21	34	33.79
34	55	54.71
55	89	88.50
89	144	143.20

1 km = 0.6214 miles
km	miles (Fib.)	miles (exact)
2	1	1.24
3	2	1.86
5	3	3.11
8	5	4.97
13	8	8.08
21	13	13.05
34	21	21.13
55	34	34.18
89	55	55.30
144	89	89.48

The Fibonnacci numbers themselves don't have to be memorised - the series can easily be recreated on paper at any time, to provide the conversion figures required. That's easier than having to memorise and multiply conversion formulas!

The Fibonnacci method can also be used to convert numbers that are not in the series. Take 40 miles or km for example - to convert it, first break down the 40 into a combination of simple Fibonnacci numbers, ie. (13*3)+1. Then any multiplication still required is relatively simple to perform, e.g.:

Fib: 40 miles = (13*3)+1 = (21*3)+2 km = 65 km
compare formula: 40 miles = 40*1.609 = 64.36 km

Fib: 40 km = (13*3)+1 = (8*3)+0 m = 25 miles
compare formula: 40 km = 40*0.6214 = 24.86 miles

Lastly, if confused about which way round the conversions go, remember that distances in miles and kilometres are like the number of letters in each word:

less in miles and more in kilometres!

" Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally! "

(Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplications, Divisions, Additions, Subtractions)

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Each word in a sentence belongs to one or another class of grammar. These classes are collectively called "the parts of speech". Here's an old mnemonic children's teaching rhyme (possibly Edwardian), describing theeight parts of speech in English grammar:

"Every name is called a NOUN,
  As field and fountain, street and town;
In place of noun the PRONOUN stands,
  As he and she can clap their hands;
The ADJECTIVE describes a thing,
  As magic wand and bridal ring;
The VERB means action, something done -
  To read and write, to jump and run;
How things are done, the ADVERBS tell,
  As quickly, slowly, badly, well;
The PREPOSITION shows relation,
  As in the street, or at the station;
CONJUNCTIONS join, in many ways,
  Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase;
The INTERJECTION cries out, 'Hark!
  I need an exclamation mark!'
Through Poetry, we learn how each
  of these make up the PARTS OF SPEECH."

Modern language tuition has since substituted the DETERMINER (an indefinite/definite article such as a, anor the) for the INTERJECTION as the eighth part of speech. Peter Hobbs therefore suggests this humourous addition to the poem:

"But oh! The modern now prefer
The relative DETERMINER...'

CONJUNCTIONS

Here is a first-letter mnemonic for remembering the coordinating conjunctions in English grammar, based on an e-mail suggestion by "Carden":

BOY SAT with BEN

( But, Or, Yet, So, And, Then,
Both...and, Either...or, Neither...nor ).

Conjunctions are one of the eight parts of speech in English grammar, and are used to combine simple phrases into compound patterns. There are two forms of conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are so called because they join units of equal status. Subordinating conjunctions join subordinate or dependent clauses to the main clause of a sentence, and include a number of "wh-words".

The coordinating conjunctions are:

... and ... both ... and

... but ... either ... or

... or ... neither ... nor

... so ...

... then ...

... yet ...

The units being conjoined can be simple words or whole clauses, but must carry equal status (e.g. Fish and chips. Sunny at first, then rainy. He called, yet said nothing about tomorrow. It was neither fish nor fowl).

The subordinating conjunctions are:

after if when

(al)though in case whenever

as in order to where

as ... as more than whereas

as if rather than wherever

because since whether

before so that while

even if that

except till/until

Subordinate conjunctions join main and dependent clauses, but can occur at the beginning of a sentence or in mid-sentence (e.g. I must run in case I miss the bus. John scored after Fred crossed the ball. Whether or not he will play is uncertain. As you know, today has been difficult.After the game finished, I went straight home).

THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD

Here's a useful mnemonic sentence to recall the names and locations of all seven wonders of the ancient world:

"PEGGI'S GARB, PAL? COLOR TEMP, DEF..", STATES JO (OZ) TO MAHAL

1. Pyramids of Egypt (Giza)
2. Hanging Gardens of Babylon (Baghdad)
3. Pharos of Alexandria
4. Colossus of Rhodes
5. Temple of Diana (Ephesus)
6. Statue of Jupiter (or Zeus) in Olympia
7. Tomb of Mausolus (Halicarnassus)

(Phonetic key to sentence:)
P-Eg-Giz, Gar-B, P-Al, Colo-R, Temp-D-Eph, Stat-J-O(Z), To-Ma-Hal

"Jo (Oz)" is also a reminder that Jupiter was the Roman name for the Greek God Zeus.

The last part ("..To-Ma-Hal") is a double reminder:
a) of the most difficult name/place, and
b) that the Taj Mahal is not included!
One can also memorise "..to Mahal, a minor" (as Halicarnassus is in Asia Minor).

E. Cobham Brewer wrote a poem on the subject which, despite its eloquence, can create some confusion:

The PYRAMIDS first, which in Egypt were laid;
Then BABYLON'S GARDENS, for Am'ytis made;
Third, MAUSOLUS' TOMB, of affection and guilt;
Fourth, the TEMPLE OF DIAN, in Ephesus built;
Fifth, COLOSSUS OF RHODES, cast in bronze, to the sun;
Sixth, JUPITER'S STATUE, by Philidas done;
The PHAROS OF EGYPT, last wonder of old,
Or the PALACE OF CYRUS, cemented with gold.

ROMAN NUMERALS

Roman numerals are numbers expressed by using letters of the Roman alphabet. Here's a mnemonic rhyme written by Peter Hobbs that explains the 7 basic roman numerals (I, V, X, L, C, D and M):

M's "mille" (or 1000 said)
D's half (500 - quickly read!)
C's just a 100 (century!)
and L is half again - 50!
So all that's left is X and V
(or 10 and 5) - and I - easy!

Thus M D C I I I = 1603
(or 1000 + 500 + 100 + 1 + 1 + 1)
and
D C C L X X V = 775
(or 500 + 100 + 100 + 50 + 10 + 10 +5)

Many people are familiar with reading I, V and X from clockfaces and just have trouble with the "higher" numerals. Here's an established acronym for just the four high ones (in ascending order):

"Lucy Can't Drink Milk"
(L,C,D,M - 50, 100, 500 and 1000)

The numeral "I" began as a finger-digit, while "V" represented the simplified outline of a hand (like a thumb and five closed fingers), this being clearer to write than five "IIIII" digits. In the same way the "X" represented two hands (ie. two V's mirrored), or ten. Later the Romans also used combinations of "one less than the next-highest numeral" for figures such as 9 (ie. "IX" rather than "VIIII"). An old established rhyme summarises how to read such combinations:

When "left" is small and "right" is bigger,
Subtract the "left" from "right-hand" figure.

Thus M C M L I X = 1959
(M+CM+L+IX = 1000 +[1000-100] +50 +[10-1])

Lastly, here's a popular and interesting pub quiz question. What number do you get if you add up all of the Roman numerals?

M D C L X V I = 1666
(or 1000 + 500 + 100 + 50 + 10 + 5 +1)
which just happens to be the year of the Great Fire of London!

THE TROPICS OF CANCER AND CAPRICORN

Here's a mnemonic device to help distinguish between the two global geographical regions:

" Ca-N-cer lies North of the Equator
and Capric-O-rn lies Opposite (South). "

The Tropic of Cancer is a line of latitude (running parallel with the equator) indicating the extreme northern positions (around the globe) at which the sun appears directly overhead at noon. The sun only reaches this position once a year, at the Summer Solstice of the Northern Hemisphere.

The Tropic of Capricorn is the parallel latitude indicating the extreme southern global positions at which the sun appears directly overhead at noon. again, the sun only reaches this position once a year, at the Summer Solstice of the Southern Hemisphere (ie. the Northern Winter Solstice).

For their degrees of latitude:

" Ca-n-cer = letters 2 +(n halfway=½°N) +3 letters = 23½°N
while Capric-o-rn (being opposite) is 23½°S. "

The Tropic of Cancer passes (W-E) through the Sahara, the Bahamas, Mexico, southern China, India, Saudi Arabia and Egypt. The Tropic of Capricorn passes through Namibia, Brazil, Chile, Australia, Madagascar and Mozambique.

Both latitudes take their names from the Zodiac of stellar constellations set along the ecliptic (the path followed by the sun and planets through the celestial sphere in course of a year). Cancer and Capricorn lie opposite each other on the ecliptic 6 months apart in the cycle (mid-June/July and mid-Dec./Jan.), and when the Sun was at its highest point in the N. Hemisphere it was (historically) in the region of Cancer (although nowadays at such times the Sun is actually in the next constellation, and leaving Gemini for Taurus).

The Tropics usually refers to the whole pan-equatorial region lying between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. For obvious climactic reasons (the sun always being high in the sky and directky overhead twice a year) it is sometimes called the Torrid Zone!

THE WORLD'S LONGEST RIVERS

Here's a useful new mnemonic phrase for remembering the world's eight longest rivers:

" NAM-MI YACH-Y! "

Nile (Africa) - 4,145 miles
Amazon (S.America) - 4,050 miles
Mississippi-Missouri (USA) - 3,760 miles
Irtysh (Russia) - 3,200 miles
Yangtse (China) - 3,100 miles
Amur (Asia) - 2,900 miles
Congo (Africa) - 2,718 miles
Huang-Ho (or Yellow) (China) - 2,700 miles

After the above 8 came another 4 rivers in "L-M-N" order:

Lena (Russia) - 2,645 miles
Mackenzie (Canada) - 2,635 miles
Mekong (Asia) - 2,600 miles
Niger (Africa) - 2,600 miles

By comparison, Europe's longest river (the Danube) comes only 26th at 1770 miles.

Fact Source: Readers Digest Great World Atlas (5th r, 1975)

Note: The "top ten" can vary between publications according to the chosen determination of river plus tributaries comprising the longest watercourse. For example the "Larousse Pocket Factfinder (1995)" lists the longest 14 rivers as (in miles):

4,160: Nile - Kagera - Ruvuvu - Ruvusu - Luvironza
4,080: Amazon - Ucayali - Tambo - Ene - Apurimac
3,740: Mississippi - Missouri - Jefferson - Beaverhead - Red Rock
then:
3,720: Chang Jiang (Yangtze)
3,650: Yenisey - Angara - Selenga - Ider
3,590: Amur - Argun - Kerulen
3,360: Ob-Irtysh
3,030: Plata - Parana - Grande
3,010: Huang Ho (Yellow)
2,880: Congo (Zaire) - Lualaba
then:
2,730: Lena
2,630: Mckenzie - Slave - Peace - Finlay
2,600: Mekong
2,550: Niger

LATITUDE and LONGITUDE

Here's a mnemonic means of remembering the difference between the two geographical means of measurement:

Long-itude is the distance ALONG the Equator from Greenwich (in degrees)
and
Lat-itude is the lateral (or sideways) distance North/South from the Equator (in degrees)

Greenwich (London) is at 0° long. and 51½°N. lat.
Accra (in Ghana) is at 0° long. and 5°N. lat.
Quito (in Ecuador) is at 78½° long. and ½°S. lat.

It also helps to recall that one often hears of Northern Latitudes or Southern Latitudes (describing climatic regions) but one never hears of plural Longitudes. The Tropics are good example of specific latitudes.

THE CONTINENTS

Here is a mnemonic sentence that gives the names of the seven continents of the earth via the first two letters of (almost) every word:

"Eat An Aspirin After A Naff Sandwich"

(Europe, Antarctica, Asia, Africa, Australia, N.America, S.America)

A continent is a large, unbroken land mass, of which geographers recognise seven in total. Notably, Europe and Asia are counted as two separate continents (divided by the Ural mountains) because historically the Old World has always been "divided" between East and West at the Bosphorus in Istanbul (Turkey). Also Australia (often called Oceania) is recognised as a continent (albeit the smallest at 3.5 million square miles or 6% of the earth's land mass) rather than an island, leaving Greenland as the largest island on earth (its 850,000 square miles being only 1.5% of the land mass).

Asia is the largest continent, being 17 million square miles (or 24%), but in colloquial English speech "the continent" refers to the land mass of mainland Europe excluding the British Isles.

INSECT STINGS

Here's a useful mnemonic for remembering their treatment:

"Use Ammonia for a Bee sting,
and Vinegar for a Wasp sting"

(A is followed by B, and V by W).

Coincidentally "A-B, V-W" also provides a mnemonic for their Latin family classifications because:

Apoidae are Bees - and - Vespidae are Wasps.

Another useful thing to remember is that throughout the order of Hymenoptera (ie. Bees, Ants and Wasps), only the females sting, so the probability of being stung at all may be less than you think!